DESIGN AND PLANNING OF TEACHING
This Paper is arranged to comply Teaching Methodology
Assignment
Arranged by:
Anis Fauzia
Eka Yuli Anggraeni
Faridha
Fitri Andriyani
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
UNIVERSITAS SAINS AL QURAN JAWA TENGAH DI WONOSOBO
2015
DESIGNING
Writers and course designers have to take a number of issues into
account when designing their materials. Once they have a clear idea of how
their theories and beliefs about learning can be translated into appropriate activities
they will have to think about what topics to include. Learning process, of
course, is a process arranged by using serious consideration therefor the basis
competence and the opreation can be achieved. Once the decision has been taken,
coursebook writers (and language program designers in general) can then turn
their attention to the central organising strand of their materials, namely the
syllabus.
A. USING COURSEBOOKS
Coursebook is a book having two types primary book and secondary
book used in learning process. ‘A Text book or coursebook is a manual of
instruction in any branch of study. A textbook can also be any standard book on
a subject, which is not necessarily used in a particular course. Textbooks are
produced according to the demands of educational institution” (source:
wikipedia). For many years methodologist have been arguing about the
usefullness of coursebooks, quetioning their role (allwright 1981), defending
their use (O’Neill 1982), worrying that they act as methodological straightjackets
(Tice 1991) or promoting their value as agents of methodological change
(Hutchinson and Torres 1994).
A.1 COURSE OR NO
COURSEBOOK
Benefits
The benefits and restrictions of coursebook use can be easyly
summarised:
Benefits: good coursebooks are carefully prepared to offer a
coherent syllabus, satisfactory language control, motivating texts, tapes and
other accessories such as videotapes, CD-ROMs, extra resource material, and
useful web link. They provide teachers under pressure with the reassurance
that, even when they are forced to plan at the last moment, they will be using
material which they can have confidence in. they come with detailed teacher’s
guides which not only provide prosedures for the lesson in the student’s book,
but also offer suggestions and alternatives, extra activies, and resources. The
adoption of anew coursebook provides a powerful stimulus for methodological
development (see Hutchinson and Torres 1994). Students like coursebooks too
since they foster the perception of progress as units and then books are
completed, they also provide materials which students can look back at for
revision.
Restrictions
Coursebooks used inappropriately, impose learning styles and content
on classes and teachers alike appearing to be faits accomplis over which they can have little control’
(Littlejhon 1998:205). Many of them rely on presentation, practice, and
production as their main methodological prosedure despite recent enthusiasm for
other teaching sequence. Units and lessons often follow an unrelenting format
so that students and teachers eventually become de-motivated by the sameness of
it all.
One solution to the perceived disadvantages of
coursebooks is to do without them altogether, to use a ‘do-it-yourself’ (Block
1991; Maley 1998). In order to DIY approach to be successful teachers need
access to (and knowladge of) a wide range of materials, from coursebooks and
videos to magazine, novels, encyclopedias, publicity brochures and the
internet.
A.2 OPTIONS FOR COURSEBOOK
USE
Where teachers reject a fully DIY approach because of time, a lack
of resources, or a preference for published materials, they then have to decide
how to use the coursebooks they have chosen. But that will probably bore both
students and the teachers and has far less chance of answering the needs of a
class than if teachers use the book more creatively, adapting it in various
ways to suit the situation they and their students are in. when we plan a
lesson arround our coursebooks, we have a number of possible options:
Omit and replace
The first decision we have to make is whether to use a particular
coursebook lesson or not. If the answer is ‘no’, there are two possible courses
of action. The first is just to omit the lesson altogether. In this case we
suppose that the students will not miss it because it does not teach anything
fundamentally necessary and it is not especially interesting. When, however, we
think the language or topic area in question is important, we will have to
replace the coursebook lesson with our own preferred alternative. Although
there is nothing wrong with omitting or replacing coursebook material, it
becomes irksome for many students if it happens too often, especially where
they have had to buy the book themselves. It may also deny them the chance to
revise a major advantage of coursebooks and their course lose overall
coherence.
To change or not change
When we decide to use a coursebook lesson we can, of course, do so
without making any substancial changes to the way it is presented. However, we
might decide to use the lesson, but to change it to make it more appropriate
for our students. If the material is not very substantial we might add
something to it-a role-play after a reading text, perhaps, or extra situations
for language practice. We might rewrite an exercise we do not especially like
or replace one activity or text with something else such as a download from the
internet, or any other homegrown items. Finally, we may wish to reduce a lesson
by cutting out an exercise or an activity. In all our decision, however, it is
important to remember that students need to be able to see a coherent pattern
to what we are doing and understand our reason changes.
A.3 CHOOSING COURSEBOOKS
The ‘assessment’ of coursebook is an out-of-class judgement as to
how well a new book will perform in class. Coursebook ‘evaluation’ on the other
hand, is a judgement on how well a book has performed in fact.
One approach to the assessment of coursebooks is to use a
checklist-or checklists prepared by others which analyse various components of
the material whether linguistic, topic, or activity based (see Cunningsworth
1924 and 1995: Littlejohn 1998). However, a problem with such assessments is
that however good they are, they may still fail to predict what actually
happens when the material is used. And when we use a checklist prepared by
other people we are accepting their view of what is appropriate in our
particular situation. Nevertheles, we need some basis for choosing which books
to use or pilot, whether we use checklists prepared by others or whether we
make them ourselves.
Criteria for assessment
The following three-stage procedure allows teachers to assess books
on the basis of their own beliefs and their assessment of their students’ needs
and circumstances;
1. Selecting areas for
assessment
We first need to list the features we wish to look at in the
coursebook under consideration, as in the following example:
Price Language
study activities
Availability Language
skill activities
Layout and design Topics
Instruction Cultural
acceptability
Methodology Usability
Syllabus type, selection and grading Teacher’s
guide
The list can be reduced or expanded, of course. We might separate
language study activities into vocabulary, grammar, and pronounciation.
2. Stating beliefs
Teachers are in a position to make ‘belief statements’ about areas
they have decided to concentrate on, such as at the following statements about:
The page should look clean
and uncluttered
The lesson sequence should
be easy to follow
The illustrations should
be attractive and appropiate.
The instructions should be
easy to read.
3. Using statements for
assessment
We are now ready to use our statemens of belief as assessment items.
And we can use simple tick and cross system to compare different books, as in
this layout and design checklist:
|
Area
|
Assessment statements
|
Coursebook 1
|
Coursebook 2
|
Coursebook 3
|
|
Layout and
design
|
1. The page is
uncluttered
2. The lesson
sequence is easy to follow
3. The
illustrarions are attractive and appropriate for the age of group
4. The
instructions are easy to read
|
√
√
√√
√
|
X
√
√
X
|
√√
X
X
√√
|
Evaluation measures
1. Teacher record
One way of doing
this is to keep diary of what happens in each lesson. For example:
Unit/lesson:
___________________________________________
General comments (including timing, effectiveness,
ease, etc): _____________
________________________________________________________________
Comment on the advantages/disadvantages of:
Exercise 1:______________________________________________________
Exercise 1:______________________________________________________
Exercise 2:
______________________________________________________
Exercise 3:
______________________________________________________
How did the students react to the lesson/
________________________________________________________________
3. Teacher discusion
The teachers who
are using the book get together and compare their experiences., involving going
through lessons (and exercise) one by one, or it may centre round discussion of
the audio material and its relates
exercise. Then teachers are coming to a conclusion.
4. Student response
One way to ask the
students if they enjoyed the material they have just been using. We may get
better feedback by asking for a written response to the materials;
What was your
favourite lesson in the book during the last week? why?
What was your favourite activity during the last week?
Alternatively, we
could have them talk about the lesson they have been studying and provide a
short written summary.
B. SYLLABUS DESIGN
Syllabus design concerns the selection of items to be learnt and the
grading of those items into approppriate sequence. It is different from
curriculum design (Nunan 1988). There are now number of different types of
language syllabus, all of which might be taken as starting point in olanning of
new coursebook, or of a term’s, or year’s work. However, every syllabus need to
be developed on the basis of criteria, which can inform below:
B.1. Syllabus design
criteria
- Learnability: some structural or lexical items are easier for students to learn than others. Thus we teach esier thing first and then increase the level of difficulty as the students’ language level rises. Example; it is easier to teach using was and were immadietely after teaching is, am and are.
- Frequency: it would make sense, especially at the beginning levels, to include items which are more frequent in the language, than ones that are only used occasionally by native speakers. Example: teaching the meaning of see first, then teacher has some authority, for example, that see is used more often to mean understand (e.g Oh I see).
- Coverage: some words and structures have greater coverage (scope for use) than others. Thus we might decide, on the basis of coverage, to introduce the going to future before the present continuous. We show that going to could be used in more situation than the present continuous.
- Usefulness: in the same way of using words book and pen so highly in classroom, words for family members occur early on a student’s learning life because they are useful in the context.
B.2. THE MULTI-SYLLABUS
A common solution to the
competing claims of the different syllabus types, involving; the grammar syllabus leading the
students to an understanding of the grammatical system, the lexical syllabus organising syllabus on the basis of vocabulary
and lexis, the functional syllabus including
categories of ‘communicative function’ such as inviting, promising, and offering, the situational syllabus offering the possibility of selecting different
real-life situations rather than different grammatical items, vocabulary
topics, or function such as at the bank, at the travel agent, etc, the topic-based syllabus organising
language in different topics, e.g the weather, sport, survival, literature, and
the task-based syllabus listing a
series of tasks, and may later list some or all of the language to be used in
those task. Instead of multi-syllabus has a program based exclusively on grammatical
or lxical categories, for example, the syllabus now shoes any combination of
items from grammar, lexis, languag functions, situations, topics, task. Example
of multi-syllabus in a map of thr book;
|
Units
|
Grammar
|
Vocabulary/pronounciation
|
skills
|
|
1. All works and no play..page 14
|
Present simple I, You,
We, They
Preposition in time
expression
|
Jobs
Leasure activities and
places
Pronoun word stress
|
Reading people at work
Listening and speaking a
job interview
Writing and speaking work
and play
|
PLANNING
LESSONS
Lesson planning is
the art of combining a number of different elements into a coherent whole so
that a lesson has an identity which students can recognize, work within, and react to-whatever metaphor
teachers may use to visualise and create that identity.
- Pre-planning
Before we start to
make a lesson plan we need to consider a number of crucial factors such as the
language level of our students, their educational and cultural background,
their likely levels of motivation and their different learning style.
Armed now with our knowledge of the students and of the syllabus we
can go on to consider the four main planning elements:
§ Activities: when planning, it is vital to consider what students will be doing
in the classroom; we have to consider the way they will be grouped, whether
they are to move around the class, whether they will work quietly side-by-side
researching on the internet or whether they will be involved in a boisterous
group-writing activity.
§ Skills: we need to make a decision about which language skills we wish our
students to develop. This choice is sometimes determined by the syllabus or the
course book. However, we still need to plan exactly how students are going to
work with the skill and what sub-skills we wish to practice.
§ Language: we need to decide what language to introduce and have the students
learn, practice, research or use.
§ Content: lesson planners have to select content which has good chance of
provoking interest and involvement. Since they know their students personally
they are well placed to select appropriate content
- The Plan
Having done some pre-planning and
made decisions about the kind of lesson we want to teach, we can make the
lesson plan.
B1. The planning continuum
The way that teachers plan lessons
depends upon the circumstances in which the lesson is to take place and on the
teacher’s experience.
B2. Making a plan
The following example of making a
plan exemplifies how a teacher might proceed from pre planning to final plan.
·
Pre-planning background: for this
lesson, some of the facts that feed into pre-planning decisions are as follows:
a.
The class is at intermediate
level. There are 31 students. They are between the ages of 18 and 31. They are
enthusiastic and participate well when not overtired.
b.
The students need ‘waking up’
at the beginning of a lesson
c.
They are quite prepared to
‘have a go’ with creative activities
d.
Lessons take place in a light
classroom equipped with a whiteboard and an overhead projector
·
Pre-planning decisions: as a result of
the background information listed above the teacher takes the following decisions:
a.
The lesson should include an
oral fluency activity
b.
The lesson should include the
introduction of should have + DONE
c.
It would be nice to have some
reading in the lesson
d.
The lesson should continue with
the transport theme-but make it significantly different in some way.
·
The plan: on the basic of our
pre-planning decisions we now make our plan. It should be emphasized that the
following lists are not examples of any planning formal since that is a matter
of style unless we are planning formally.
B3. The Formal Plan
Formal plans are sometimes required,
especially when, teachers are to be observed and /or assessed as part of a
training scheme or for reasons of internal quality control. A formal plan
should contain some or all of the following elements:
Ø Class description and timetable fit
A
class description tells us who the students are, and what can be expected of
them. It can give information about how the group and how the individuals in it
behave. Example:
|
CLASS DESCRIPTION
The
students in this upper intermediate class are between the ages 18-31. There
are 21 women and 9 men. There are PAS/secretaries, 5 housewives, 10
university students (3 of these are postgraduates), teachers, businessmen, a
musician, a scientist, a chef, a shop assistant and a waiter.
Because
the class stars at 7.45 in the evening, students are often quite tired after
a long day at work (or at their studies). They can switch off quite easily,
especially if they are involved in a long and not especially interesting
piece of reading, for example, however, if they get involved they can be
noisy and enthusiastic. Sometimes this enthusiasm gets a little out of
control and they start using their first language a lot.
|
Depending on the
circumstances of the plan, the teacher may want to detail more information
about individual students, e.g. Hiromi
has a sound knowledge of English and is very confident in her reading and
writing abilities. However, she tends to be rather too quite in groupwork,
since she is not especially comfortable at “putting herself forward”. This
tends to get in the way of the development of her oral fluency. Such
detailed description will be especially appropriate with smaller groups, but
becomes increasingly difficult to do accurately with larger class.
However, a
record of knowledge of individual students gained through such means as
observation, homework, and test scores is invaluable if we are to meet
individual needs.
Also include information about how the class
has been feeling and what kind of activities they have been involved in (e.g.
controlled or communicative, pairwork, or groupwork). All these factors should
have influenced our planning choices for this lesson.
Ø
Lesson aims
The
best classroom aims are specific and directed towards an outcome which can be
measured. If we say My aim is that my
students should/can ... by the end of the class, we will be able to tell,
after the lesson, whether that aim has been met or not. Aims should reflect
what we hope the students will be able to do, not what the teacher is going to
do. An aim such as to teach the present perfect is not really an aim at all –
except for the teacher.
A lesson will often have more than
one aim. We might well say, for example, that our overall objective is to
improve our students reading ability, but that our specific aims are to
encourage them to predict content, to use guessing strategies to overcome
lexical problems, and to develope an imaginative response to what they
encounter. Example:
|
AIMS
|
Ø Activities, procedure, and timing
The
main body of formal plan lists the activities and the procedures in that
lesson, together with the times we expect each of them to take. We will include
the aids we are going to use, and
show the different interactions which will take place in the class.
When detailing procedure, ‘symbol’ shorthand
is an efficient tool to describe the interactions that are taking place: T=
teacher; S= an individual student; TàC= the teacher working with
the whole class; S,S,S= student working in their own; SßàS= students working in pairs; SSßàSS= pairs of students in discussion
with other pairs; GG= students working in group, and so on. The following
example shows how the procedure of an activity can be described:
|
Activity/Aids
|
Interaction
|
Procedure
|
Time
|
|
Group
decision-making
Pen and paper
|
a.TàC
b.S,S,S
c.SßàS
d.SSßàSS
(GG)
e.TßàGG
|
T
tells students to list five things they would take into space with them
(apart from essentials).
SS
make their lists individually.
In
pairs students have to negotiate their items to come with a shared list of
only five items to take to a space station.
Pairs
join with other pairs
The
new groups have to negotiate their items to come with a shared list of only
five items to take to a space station.
The T
encourages the groups to compare their lists.
|
1’
2’
3’
4’
3’
|
Ø Problems and possibilities
A
good plan tries to predict potential pitfalls and suggest ways of dealing with
them. It also includes alternative activities in case we find it necessary to
divert from the lesson sequence we had hoped to follow (seeC1 below).
When listing anticipated problems it
is a good idea to think ahead to possible solutions we might adopt to resolve
them, Example:
|
Anticipated
problems
|
Possible
solutions
|
|
Students
may not be able to think of items to take to a space station with them for
activity 1.
|
I
will keep my eyes open and go to prompt any individuals who look ‘vacant’ or
puzzled with questions about music, books, pictures, etc., they might want to
take.
|
|
Students
may have trouble contracting ‘should not have’ in Activity 4.
|
I
will do some isolation s and distortion work until they can say/shouldn’t
has.
|
If our lesson
proceeds faster than we had anticipated, we may need additional material
anyway. It is therefore sensible, especially in formal planning, to list
additional possibilities, as in the following example:
ADDITIONAL POSSIBILITIES
|
Extra
speaking
|
if
some groups finish first they can quickly discuss what three things from home they would most miss
if they were on a space station.
|
|
News
broadcast
|
Students
could write an earth ‘newsflash’ giving news of what happened at the space
station staring ‘We interrupt this programme to bring you news’.
|
|
Video
clip
|
If
there’s time I can show the class an extract from the ‘Future of Space
Exploration programme.
|
B4. Planning a sequence of lessons
Planning a sequence of lessons is
based on the same principles as planning a single lesson, but there are number
of additional issues which we need to pay special attention to:
Ø Before and during
However
carefully we plan, in practice unforeseen things are likely to happen during
the course of a lesson, and so our plans are continually modified in the light
of these. Even more than plan for an
individual lesson, a scheme of work for weeks or months of lessons is only a proposal
of what we hope to achieve in that time. We will need to revisit this scheme
constantly to update it.
Ø Short and long-term goal
However
motivated a student may be at the beginning of a course, the level of that
motivation may fall dramatically if the student is not engaged or if they
cannot see where they are going- or know when they have got there.
They need goals
and reward to stay motivated. While a satisfactory long-term goal may be to
‘master the English language’, it can seem only a dim and distant possibility
at various stages of the learning cycle. Students need short-term goals too,
such as the completion of some piece of work (or some part of the programme),
and rewards such as success on small, staged lesson tests, or taking part in
activities designed to recycle knowledge and demonstrate acquisition.
When
we plan a sequence of lessons, we need to build in goals for both students and
ourselves to aim at, whether they are end-of-week tests, or major revision
lessons. That way we can hope to give our students a staged progression of
successfully met challenges.
Ø Thematic strands
One
way to approach a sequence of lessons is to focus in different content in each
individual lesson. This will certainly provide variety. It might be better,
however, for themes to carry over for more than one lesson, or at least to
reappear, so that students perceive some coherent topic strands as the course
progresses. With such thematic steads we and our students can refer backwards
and forwards both in terms of language- especially the vocabulary that certain
topics generate- and also in terms of topics we ask them to invest time in
considering.
Ø Language planning
When
we plan language input over a sequence of lessons we want to propose a sensible
progression of syllabus elements such as grammar, lexis, and functions. We also
want to build insufficient opportunities for recycling and remembering language
and for using language in productive skill work. If we are following a
coursebook closely, many of these decisions may already have been taken, but
even in such circumstance we need to keep a constant eye on how things are
going, and with the knowledge of ‘before and after’ modify the programme we are
working from the necessary.
Language does
not exist in a vacuum, however. Our decision about how to weave it through the
lesson sequence will be heavily influenced by the need for a balance of
activities.
Ø Activity balance
The
balance of activities over a sequence of lessons is one of the features which
will determine the overall level of student involvement in the course. If we
get it right, it will also provide the widest range of experience to meet the
different learning styles of the students in the class ( see chapter 3 , B3).
Over a period of weeks or months we would expect students ti
have received a varied diet of activities; they should not have to role-play
every day, nor would we expect every lesson to be devoted exclusively to
language study (in the ways we described it in Chapter 11). There is a danger,
too, that they might become bored if every Friday was the reading class, every
Monday the presentation class, every Wednesday was speaking and writing. In
such a scenario the level of predictability may have gone beyond the sufficient
to the exaggerated. What we are looking for, instead, is a blend of the
familiar and new.
Planning a
successful sequence of lessons means taking all these factors into
consideration and weaving them together into a colourful but coherent tapestry.
C. Using the lesson plan
C1.
Action and reaction
Planning a lesson is not the same as
scripting a lesson. Wherever our preparations fit on the planning continuum,
what we take into the lesson is a proposal to action, rather than a lesson
blueprint to be followed slavishly. And our proposal for action, transformed
into action in the classroom, is bound to ‘evoka some sort of student reaction’
( Malamah –Thomas 1987:5). We then have to decide how to cope with that
reaction and whether, in the light of it, we can continue with our plan or whether
we need to modify it as we go along.
There are a number of reasons why we
may need to modify our proposal for action once a lesson is taking place:
Ø Magic moment
Some of the most
affecting moments in language lessons happen when a conversation develops
unexpectedly, or when a topic produces a level of interest in our students
which we had not predicted. The occurrence of such magic moments helps to
provide and sustain a group’s motivation. We have to recognize them when they
come along and then take a judgment about whether to allow them to develop,
rather than denying them life because they do not fit into our plan.
Ø Sensible diversion
Another reason
for diversion from our original plan is when something happens which we simply
cannot ignore, whether this is a surprising student reaction to a reading text,
or the sudden announcement that someone is getting married! In the case of
opportunistic teaching (see Chapter 11,A2). We take the opportunity to teach
language that has suddenly come up. Similarly, something might occur to us in
terms of topic or in terms of a language connection which we suddenly want to
develop on the spot.
Ø Unforeseen problem
Some students
may find an activity that we thought interesting incredibly boring. An activity
may take more or less time than we anticipated. It is possible that something
we thought would be fairly simple for our students turns out to be very
difficult(or vice versa). We may have planned an activity based on the number
of students we expected to turn up, only to find that some of them are absent.
Occasionally we find that students have already come across material or topics
we take into class, and our common sense tells us that it would be unwise to
carry on.
In any of the above scenarios it
would be almost impossible to carry on with our plan as if nothing had
happened; if an activity finishes quickly we have to find something else to
fill the time. If students cannot do what we are asking of them, we will have
to modify what we are asking of them. If some students (but not all) have
already finished an activity we cannot just leave those students to get bored.
It is possible to anticipate
potential problems in the class (see c2 below) and to plan strategies to deal
with them. But however well we do this, things will still happen that surprise
us, and which, therefore, cause us to move away from our plan, whether this is
a temporary or permanent state of affairs.
However well we
plan, our plan is just a suggestion of what we might do in class. Everything
depends upon how our students respond and relate to it. In Jim scrivener’s
words, ‘prepare thoroughly. But in class, teach the learners – not the plan’
(scrivener 1994b:44)
C2 plans as records and research tool
Written
plans are not just proposal for future action; they are also records of
proposals for future action; they are also records of what has taken place.
Thus, when we are in the middle of a sequence of lesson, we can look back at
what we have done in order to decide what to do next.
Since we may have to modify our lessons depending on student reactions we need to
keep a record of how successful certain activities were to aid our memory. A
record of lessons can also help colleagues if and when they have to teach for
us when we are absent.
Our original written plans will, therefore, have to be
modified in the light of what actually happened in the classes we taught. This
may simply mean crossing out the original activity title or coursebook page
number, and replacing it with what we used in reality. However, if we have time
to record how we and the students experienced the lesson, reflecting carefully
on successful and less successful activities, not only will this help us to
make changes if and when we want to use the same activities again, but it will
also lead us to think about how we teach and consider changes in both
activities and approach. Lesson planning in this way allows us to act as our
own observers and aids us in our own development.
References
·
See R Gower
et al (1995: 178)
·
Harmer,
Jeremy. The Practice of English Language Teaching.
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